The Ramayana is traditionally attributed to the sage Valmiki, who is celebrated in Hindu tradition as the Adi Kavi, or the first poet of Sanskrit literature. The epic, composed in Sanskrit, is one of the two major ancient Indian epics, the other being the Mahabharata.
Valmiki is credited with inventing the shloka meter, the poetic form that defined much of classical Sanskrit poetry. According to the text of the epic itself, Valmiki is named as its author, a claim that has been maintained by Hindu tradition for centuries.
The Sage and His Transformation
Traditional accounts describe Valmiki’s early life as a highway robber named Ratnakara. He is said to have been transformed after an encounter with the sage Narada, who guided him onto a path of righteousness and advised him to chant the name of Rama.
Valmiki is also known by the name Ratnakara before his transformation, and he is revered as the first poet in Hinduism. A religious movement called Valmikism is based on his teachings as presented in the Ramayana and the Yoga Vasistha.
While Valmiki is the traditional author, scholars note that little is known of him as a historical figure. His name has attracted a number of legendary elements over the centuries, and the information conveyed about him within the epic itself is considered by scholars to have symbolic value.
Composition and Dating
The Ramayana existed in the oral tradition perhaps as far back as 1,500 BCE, but the fourth century BCE is generally accepted as the date of its composition in Sanskrit by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is dated variously from 500 BC to 100 BC, or about co-eval with early versions of the Mahabharata.
The epic consists of approximately 24,000 verses, divided into seven kandas, or books. It contains about 480,002 words, making it one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. The Ramayana tells the story of Prince Rama of Ayodhya, whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon king Ravana of Lanka.
As with most traditional epics, the text has gone through a long process of interpolations and redactions, making it impossible to date it with absolute accuracy. Scholars have noted that the earliest stage of the text may range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE.
The Question of Multiple Authors
Some scholars have argued that the entire Ramayana was not written by a single person. They believe that the first and seventh kandas, along with several other passages, were added later. The reason given is that these sections do not align with the other kandas, as they portray Rama as an avatar of Vishnu, while other sections depict his character as human.
Scholars such as Winternitz have suggested that the original Ramayana, the nucleus which grew to its present volume due to countless additions and interpolations, was composed in the third century BCE by Valmiki on the basis of ancient ballads. Other scholars have taken pains to show that neither the Ramayana nor the Mahabharata is the work of a single poet.
The Uttara Kanda, the final book of the epic, is widely considered a later addition. Some scholars have argued that Valmiki could not have written the Uttara Kanda, and that it was attached to the original text at a later date. The earliest reference to the story of the Uttara Kanda can be found in the Brhatkatha as retold by Ksemendra and Somadeva.
The Oral Tradition and the Many Ramayanas
The Ramayana was orally transmitted for centuries before being consigned to writing. The recensions of the epic must have been handed down through oral transmission, perhaps influenced by the Vedic mnemonic tradition, from the oral composition attributed to Valmiki.
Depending on the methods of counting, as many as three hundred versions of the Ramayana are known to exist. The original Mula Ramayana, attributed to the sage Narada, is said to have contained a hundred crore verses. Narada passed on the knowledge to Valmiki, who authored the Valmiki Ramayana, the present oldest available version of the epic.
The Ramayana has spread to many Asian countries outside of India, including Burma, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, Mongolia, Vietnam, and China. The original Valmiki version has been adapted or translated into various regional languages, often marked by plot twists and thematic adaptations.
The most famous adaptations include the 12th-century Tamil Ramavataram by Kamban, the 16th-century Awadhi Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, and the 15th-century Bengali Krittivasi Ramayana. In south India, the Ramayana of Kamban prevails, while in north India, the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas has become legendary.
The Valmiki Ramayana, composed in Sanskrit, is clearly the oldest surviving version. The earlier portions of the text were probably composed around 500 BCE, with later sections added over the following centuries.